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3	What is a scientific theory? Scientific theories are explanations of phenomena that account for much of the relevant empirical research findings and are created for this purpose. These explanations are presented in the form of propositions and postulates from which additional hypotheses can be derived and tested in order to further confirm or disconfirm the theories. They are then modified if research results show a need. Theories emerge from the research of many, and are verified by detached groups of researchers. They are not opinions or beliefs and are never “believed-in” by true scientists who are skeptical and always looking for ways to improve upon current theoretical explanations. Gordon Vessels, 2005.
4	"1." 1. Free will vs. Determinism or Active Agent vs. Passive Organism: Is the free will to make choices an illusion? Are we completely shaped by genetic and environmental events? Are we active agents who direct, shape, and control our own development and destiny? 2. Nature vs. Nurture or Stability vs. Placticity: To what extent are we a product of our genetic inheritance ("nature") or a product of our experiences ("nurture")? Are people essentially programmed by their heredity and evolutionary past or can they be effectively shaped by others through intentional acts? 3. Unconscious vs. Conscious Motivation: Is much or all of our behavior and determined by unconscious factors? Or is little or none so determined? How much of our behavior is determined by conscious forces? 4. Uniqueness vs. Universality: Are we each unique, or will psychology eventually discover laws that explain all our behavior and our seemingly unique combinations of personal traits? 5. Physiological vs. Purposive Motivation: Are we more "pushed" by physiological needs? Are we more "pulled" by our perceptions, knowledge, virtues, higher-level needs, and personal goals, values, and principles? 6. Cultural Determinism vs. Cultural Transcendence: Do our cultures shape and control? Can we rise above or transcend cultural influences? This repeats the free-will question with specific reference to environmental as culture.
5	Active Person versus Passive; Free Will vs. Determinism What is person’s role and control? Passive = shaped by genetic & environmental influences or Active = agents who shape, control, and direct their own development
6	Relative Influence of Heredity/Biology & Environment/Learning
7	Nature versus Nurture Nature refers to the biological make-up or genetic structure that pre-determines (to a limited degree) each person’s attitudes, behavior, temperament, health, intellectual potential, etc. Innate genetic influences are inherited from our biological parents. Nurture refers to behaviors, attitudes, knowledge, values, etc. learned while being raised in a specific environment. These are environmental and life experiences that shape us through the socialization process.
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10	David Hume (science unpromising and based on faulty concepts) Francis Bacon (science essential for the betterment of humanity) Hume saw science as an amusing pastime that revealed habits of the mind and had no chance of producing useful explanations. He saw philosophy similarly. Bacon saw science as something that needed to be done in order to replace doctrine and tradition with scientific facts that could improve the human condition. Hume did, however, endorse Francis Bacon’s inductive method. For Bacon inductive reasoning and experimentation were parts of the “constructive” part of his scientific method and were the only two methods by which facts should be determined ─ “deconstruction” was the other part of his scientific method. Hume’s phenomenalism distinguished between sense impressions and ideas. Hume’s types of ideas are . . . Simple: directly from simple perceptions; cannot be false Complex: combination of simple ideas; may not match reality (skepticism) Hume viewed inferences about causality as unfounded based on the fact that two events have occurred together or in succession and have caused in people an expectation from which cause should not be inferred. He rejected the concept of “self” and saw nothing in his study of the inner workings of the mind to justify it. He tried to portray causality as non-existent and a matter of conjunction and our personal expectations.
11	Hume’s Laws of Association Association of Ideas Only: Law of resemblance Thoughts run naturally from one idea to similar ideas Law of contiguity One object causes other objects encountered at the same time to be remembered Law of Cause and effect Effects bring up events that come before
12	James Mill (1773-1836) • Mental Physics or Mechanics of Mind All mental experience (ideas) are sensations Simple ideas combine in a simple additive’ way to create complex ideas Complex ideas combine additively to create more complex ideas • Associations Frequency Vividness
13	John Stewart Mill, British Associationist Associationism Frequency Vividness Similarity – similar ideas trigger each other Mental chemistry Complex ideas have different properties than simple ideas.
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21	Three Tasks of Titchener’s Structuralism Discover basic elements of sensation to which all complex processes can be reduced; Determine how simple sensations are connected to form more complex perceptions, ideas, and images; Involving his Law of Association Explain how the mind works.
22	Functionalism Its goal was to understand how the mind and behavior work to help an organism adjust to its environment. William James launched Functionalism. It developed at two universities simultaneously: The University of Chicago John Dewey James Angell Harvey Carr Columbia University in New York James M. Cattell Robert Woodworth Edward Thorndike
23	Perspectives in Psychology
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25	Assumptions of Behavioral Theories Nurture (the environment), not nature Principles of “learning” determine behavior change and development Learning (passive responses to incoming stimuli) Plasticity, not stability: development is gradual and continuous.
26	BEHAVIORISM CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Unconditioned stimulus -unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus - conditioned response OPERANT CONDITINING Positive & negative reinforcers Positive & negative punishment Schedules of reinforcement SOCIAL LEARNING Modeling Vicarious reinforcement
27	Behaviorism
28	Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 He was a trained as a medical doctor and was interested in blood circulation and digestion. The work that made Pavlov famous in psychology began as a study in digestion. He was looking at digestion in dogs: the relationship between salivation and reactions in the stomach. He realized they were closely linked by reflexes in the autonomic nervous system.
29	BEHAVIOR CHANGE
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32	Assumptions of Cognitive Theories People construct their own understanding. People form mental representations of their world (images, schemas, etc.) People are active in their environment Nature and Nurture interact as causes. Plasticity, not stability.
33	Origins of Cognitive Psychology 1950’s – 1970’s ─ No agreed upon date Ulric Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology published in 1967. Why did Cognitive Psychology begin? Two important factors: Dissatisfaction with behaviorism’s account of complex behaviors (e.g., Chomsky’s model of language) Convergence of several fields during WWII such as Linguistics, Human Performance, Artificial Intelligence, etc.
34	Cognitive Psychology
35	Gestalt Psychology
36	Assumptions of Psychodynamic Theories Nature and Nurture, as interactive causes Stability over plasticity: invariant, expected stages of development Active, not passive: children strive to resolve developmental crises
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38	Alfred Adler 1870 - 1937 Adler originally worked with Freud but left over the issue of sexuality determining personality; Adler concluded that the need for power motivates people and shapes their personalities and not unconscious sexual drives; He developed what he called “individual psychology,” which was based on the idea that people can be made aware of the many goals and values that guide them; He introduced the well-known concept of “inferiority complex.” He believed that all people at some time feel inferior (e.g. as children) and try to compensate by seeking experiences that give them power.
39	Carl Jung 1875 - 1961 Jung worked with Freud and Alder at the turn of the century, and, like Adler, he split with Freud over the personality-sexuality connection. Adler originated the concepts of “extroversion” and “introversion” as personality types or characteristics. The extrovert is characteristically the active person who is most happy when around other people; the introvert is typically a deliberate and contemplative person who enjoys self-isolation and the inner world of their own ideas and feelings. Jung originated the scheme of four psychological functions: sensation, intuition, thinking and feeling.
40	Erik Erikson 1902 - 1994 Erikson was interested in “human development” and “personality development”; He proposed the way individuals resolve or fail to resolve epigenetically determined developmental crises determines their traits and virtues and how they will relate to others throughout life; He coined the terms “Identity Crisis” to describe the conflict within adolescents as they consolidate social roles and values to form their own identities.
41	Assumptions of Humanistic Theories Nurture, not Nature with focus on needs and interpersonal support Plasticity, not Stability: no predictable stages of development Active, not passive: children take action based on inherent growth need
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43	Philosophical Assumptions of Social-Contextual Theories
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49	Assumptions of Biological Theories Nature, not nurture Stability, not plasticity: invariant, predictable stages of development Passive, not active: children passively respond and adjust
50	Biological Perspective
51	THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE GENETIC FACTORS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM THE BRAIN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM THE NEUROSCIENCE REVOLUTION NEUROPHARMACOLOGY PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY INTEGRATION OF BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
52	BEHAVIOR GENETICS
53	Evolutionary Psychology